Egyptian history and constitutions

From ancient Egypt to the modern kingdom

1. Before c. 3100 BCE

   Predynastic Egypt

   Farming communities developed along the Nile and in the Delta. Pottery and burials reveal changing crafts and local traditions at centres such as Naqada and Hierakonpolis.

2. c. 3100 BCE

   Unification and the Early Dynastic Period

   The Narmer Palette is associated with the early unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Early Dynastic finds show the growth of royal administration and the use of writing to record goods and names.

3. Dynasties 3–6

   Old Kingdom and the Pyramid Age

   This period saw the construction of Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Saqqara and the pyramids at Giza. Tombs and inscriptions document work and administration around the royal court.

4. Dynasties 7–17

   Intermediate periods and the Middle Kingdom

   After Old Kingdom authority declined, Mentuhotep II reunified Egypt from Thebes. In a later intermediate period the Hyksos controlled parts of the north while Theban rulers held power in the south.

5. Dynasties 18–20

   New Kingdom

   Egyptian influence extended into Nubia and the eastern Mediterranean. Karnak, Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahri and the reign of Ramesses II mark the period.

6. c. 1070–332 BCE

   From the New Kingdom to Alexander

   Multiple centres of power emerged after the New Kingdom. Local, Libyan and Kushite dynasties ruled, and the Late Period saw phases of Persian rule before Alexander’s arrival.

7. 332–30 BCE

   Alexander and the Ptolemies

   Alexander entered Egypt in 332 BCE. The Ptolemies subsequently ruled from Alexandria until its fall in the reign of Cleopatra VII.

8. 30 BCE–7th century CE

   Roman and Byzantine Egypt

   Egypt became a Roman province after Ptolemaic rule. Christianity spread, the Coptic Church and monastic traditions developed, and Eastern Roman rule continued until the Arab conquest.

9. 7th century–969

   The Arab conquest and Fustat

   Fustat became the seat of government after the conquest. Umayyad and Abbasid administration was followed by Tulunid and Ikhshidid rule before the Fatimids arrived.

10. 969–1250

    Fatimids and Ayyubids

    The Fatimids founded Cairo and established al-Azhar. In 1171 the Fatimid caliphate ended and Ayyubid rule began under Saladin.

11. 1250–1517

    Mamluk Sultanate

    The Mamluks ruled from Cairo under the Bahri and Burji sultanates. Their period left a substantial legacy of schools, mosques and public buildings.

12. 1517–1805

    Ottoman rule and the French expedition

    Egypt came under Ottoman rule in 1517, while Mamluk elites retained local influence. The French expedition of 1798–1801 was followed by rivalry over control of the province.

13. 1805–1882

    Muhammad Ali and the Khedivate

    Muhammad Ali took office in 1805 and reorganized the army and administration. Under Khedive Ismail, the Suez Canal opened in 1869 and Cairo expanded.

14. 1882–1922

    British occupation and the Sultanate

    British occupation began in 1882 and a protectorate was declared in 1914. After the 1919 Revolution, the declaration of 28 February 1922 preceded the establishment of the Kingdom of Egypt.

Presidents and transitions

1953–1954

Mohamed Naguib

First president

He became the first president on proclamation of the republic. A 1954 crisis saw him briefly return after his resignation was accepted, before his removal in November.

1956–1970

Gamal Abdel Nasser

President

He led the Revolutionary Command Council after Naguib’s removal and formally took office in 1956. His presidency encompassed union with Syria, its dissolution and the 1964 interim constitution.

1970–1981

Anwar Sadat

President

He succeeded Nasser and the 1971 Constitution was adopted during his presidency. He was assassinated on 6 October 1981.

6–14 Oct 1981

Sufi Abu Taleb

Acting president

As speaker of the People’s Assembly, he performed presidential duties between Sadat’s assassination and Mubarak’s assumption of office.

1981–2011

Hosni Mubarak

President

He took office in October 1981 after the interim period and stepped down in February 2011.

2011–2012

Supreme Council of the Armed Forces

Transition chaired by Field Marshal Hussein Tantawi

The Council administered the country after Mubarak stepped down until power passed to the elected president in June 2012. The portrait shows its chair, Hussein Tantawi.

2012–2013

Mohamed Morsi

President

He assumed office in June 2012. The 2012 Constitution was adopted during his term, which ended on 3 July 2013.

2013–2014

Adly Mansour

Interim president

The president of the Supreme Constitutional Court assumed the interim presidency. The 2014 Constitution was adopted during the transition.

2014

Abdel Fattah El-Sisi

President

He assumed the presidency in June 2014. Amendments to the 2014 Constitution were approved in a 2019 referendum.